Systematic Theology
Ecclesiology
The doctrine of the Church — definition, marks, government, ecumenism
Ecclesiology is the field in which the divergences between the three principal Christian traditions are most structural. The question of what constitutes the Church carries with it at once the questions of authority, succession and sacramental validity.
Definitions of the Church
| Tradition | Fundamental definition | Normative text |
|---|---|---|
| Lutheran | The assembly of all believers among whom the gospel is purely preached and the sacraments administered according to the gospel. | Augsburg Confession art. VII (1530) |
| Reformed | Wherever the Word is preached, the sacraments administered and discipline exercised — three marks. The invisible Church of the elect and the visible confessing community. | Calvin, Institutes IV.1; Heidelberg Catechism Q/A 54 |
| Catholic | The one Church of Christ “subsists in” the Roman Catholic Church under the pope. Other Christians stand in imperfect communion. | Lumen Gentium §8 (1964) |
| Orthodox | The Body of Christ — the fullness (πλήρωμα) of divine life. A conciliar, synodal structure reflecting the trinitarian nature of God. | Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church |
The marks of the Church
Two marks in the Lutheran tradition (Augsburg VII): the pure preaching of the gospel and the administration of the sacraments according to it. Three marks in the Reformed (Calvin): Word, sacraments and ecclesiastical discipline. The marks are functional: they identify where the Church is present, not an indefectible visible institution.
The four notes of the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed: one, holy, catholic and apostolic. Apostolicity means the living transmission of Tradition together with unbroken episcopal succession. The Church is one by nature, and those who separate depart from her.
The same four notes, read institutionally: visible unity under the pope, holiness in the canonised saints and the sacramental life, catholicity both geographical and doctrinal, apostolicity in the episcopal succession from Peter.
Church government: three models
| Model | Structure | Traditions |
|---|---|---|
| Episcopal | Bishops, priests, deacons. Descending hierarchical authority; the bishop heads the diocese. Apostolic succession required. | Catholic · Orthodox · Anglican · Nordic Lutheran |
| Presbyterian-synodal | A council of elders locally; consistory, synod and general assembly above. Ascending collegial authority; ministers are of equal rank. | Reformed · Presbyterian · Genevan |
| Congregational | Each local congregation is autonomous. No binding higher authority; the local assembly is the source of authority. | Baptist · Mennonite · independent evangelical |
The Genevan fourfold office
Calvin (Institutes IV.3) identifies four permanent offices: the pastor, for preaching and sacraments; the doctor, for theological teaching, embodied in the Academy founded in 1559; the elder (presbyter), for government and discipline in the Consistory; and the deacon, for the care of the poor. The Company of Pastors and Deacons of Geneva, founded in 1542 and so named officially since 1998, brings ministers and deacons together on equal terms. Since 1998 a deacon may be elected Moderator; the first was Maurice Gardiol, in July 1998.
Universal priesthood and ordained ministry
Luther (To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, 1520) held that all the baptised are priests (1 Pet 2:9). The pastoral ministry is not an ontologically distinct “order” but a public function for which the community calls and commissions. The position excludes both clericalism and radical individualism.
Visible and invisible Church
The classical Reformed distinction
The invisible Church is the company of the elect known to God alone, in all times and places. The visible Church is the confessing assembly. The two do not coincide perfectly: hypocrites may stand within the visible Church, and the elect may stand outside institutional communion, as with Cornelius in Acts 10. The distinction forecloses any straightforward identification of institutional membership with membership of the Body of Christ, and it underlies both Reformed tolerance and Reformed ecumenical openness.
Ecumenism: historical landmarks
| Event | Date | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh | 1910 | The birth of the modern ecumenical movement. Mott: the division of the missions is a scandal. |
| Foundation of the World Council of Churches | 1948 | Amsterdam; 147 founding churches. The Catholic Church attends as observer. |
| Vatican II — Unitatis Redintegratio | 1964 | Protestants become “separated brethren” in imperfect communion. The shift in register was substantial. |
| Lima — Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry | 1982 | Convergence on baptism, eucharist and ministry. |
| Joint Declaration on Justification | 1999 | LWF and the Vatican; consensus on grace. The WCRC acceded in 2017. |
| Porvoo Agreement | 1996 | Full communion between the Nordic Lutheran churches and the Anglican churches of Britain and Ireland. |
Bibliography
- Calvin, John. Institutes IV.1-3 (1559). LCC 21. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960.
- Faith and Order Commission. Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry. Geneva: WCC, 1982.
- Volf, Miroslav. After Our Likeness: The Church as the Image of the Trinity. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998.
- Dulles, Avery. Models of the Church. New York: Doubleday, 1974.
Quiz — Ecclesiology
Which third mark of the Church does Calvin add to the two of the Augsburg Confession?
- Apostolic succession
- Ecclesiastical discipline
- Episcopal collegiality
- Visible unity under a primate
Augsburg art. VII (two marks); Calvin, Institutes IV.1.9